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The
concise guide to the Anglo-Sri Lankan lexicon by Richard Boyle-Part
XVI bandy (1761).
"A carriage, bullock-carriage, buggy, or cart, used in India." The earliest
reference among many to be found in English literature pertaining
to Sri Lanka is by Robert Percival from An Account of the Island
of Ceylon (1803:286): "Bullocks are employed to draw them in
carts of a particular construction, known on the island by the name
of bandies. These vehicles are very long, narrow, and clumsy. The
body of the bandy rests on a strong beam, which projects like the
pole of a carriage. To the extreme end of this pole a piece of wood,
almost six feet long, and very thick, is attached crosswise. Under
it are hoops fixed for the necks of the cattle, which are kept fast
by pegs. By this means the whole weight of the load rests on the
neck and shoulders of the oxen, while they drag the cart along.
The sides of the cart are composed of thin boards, of the skins
of buffaloes, or split bamboes; while a strong post of wood is placed
at each of the four corners to give it a shape and to hold these
firm. The bottom is either of boards, or interwoven bamboes: the
axle-tree and wheels resemble those of the Irish truckles, or cars,
being blocks of wood rounded." Robert Binning
states in A Journal of Two Years Travel in Persia, Ceylon, etc.
(1857:II.33): "Heavy goods are chiefly conveyed, as in India,
in the rude but serviceable vehicles, called bandies." James Emerson
Tennent relates in Ceylon (1859[1977]:II.662): "Bullock bandies
covered with cajans met us." Constance Gordon
Cumming comments in Two Happy Years in Ceylon (1892[1901]:27): "Larger
palm-thatched carts or 'bullock-bandys,' but similarly balanced
on two wheels, are used for general traffic." Alan Walters
notes in Palms and Pearls; or Scenes in Ceylon (1892:55): "As
we pass along our ears are sure to be tortured by the strident creaking
of the bullock bhandies (Tamul wandi) with their covering of plaited
coco-leaves, drawn by mild-eyed humped zebus." There is a
corresponding entry in H-J2, which like the OED2 does not associate
the term with Sri Lanka. hackery (1698).
"Anglo-Indian [Origin not clear; perhaps a corruption of Hindi
chhakra a two-wheeled bullock-cart.] The common native bullock-cart
of India used for the transport of goods; also in western India
and Sri Lanka, as formerly in Bengal, applied to a lighter carriage
(drawn sometimes by horses) for the conveyance of persons." Then there
is James Emerson Tennent, who writes in Ceylon (1859[1977]:II.662):
"Coolies, heavily laden with burdens of fresh fish from the
sea, hurried towards the great town, native gentlemen, driving fast-trotting
oxen in little hackery cars, hastened home from it." Tennent
defines hackery in a footnote: "the hackery is a light conveyance,
with or without springs, in which a well-trained bullock will draw
two persons at the rate of eight miles an hour." Gordon Cumming
(1892[1901]:27) describes the zebus that draw the hackery: "In
lieu of reins and a bit, a hole is bored through the nostril, and
the poor beasts are guided by a rope passed throught the nose. Some
are very fast trotters and native gentlemen drive them at a rattling
pace in small hackeries." Henry Cave
advises travellers in Ceylon along the Rail Track (1910[2002]:68):
"Bullock hackeries can be obtained at twenty-five cents an
hour." Henry Yule
writes in his Introduction to Hobson-Jobson: "Of some very
familiar words the origin remains either dubious, or matter only
for conjecture. Examples are hackery, florican and topaz."
The entry for hackery in H-J2 states: "In the Bengal Presidency
this word is now applied only to the common native bullock-cart
used in the slow draught of goods and materials. But formerly in
Bengal, as still in Western India and Ceylon, the word was applied
to lighter carriages (drawn by bullocks) for personal transport.
Though the word is used by Englishmen almost universally in India,
it is unknown to natives, or if known is regarded as an English
term; and its origin is extremely obscure. It is probably one of
those numerous words which were long in use, and undergoing corruption
by illiterate soldiers and sailors, before they appeared in any
kind of literature. Wilson suggests a probable Portuguese origin
e.g from acarretar, 'to convey in a cart.' It is possible that the
mere Portuguese article and noun a carreta might have produced the
Anglo-Indian hackery. "But it
is almost certain that the origin of the word is the Hindi chhakra,
'a two-wheeled cart;' and it may be noted that in old Singhalese
chakka, 'a cart-wheel,' takes the forms haka and saka." However,
as the editor notes, "this can have no connection with chhakra,
which represents a wagon." palankeen,
palanquin (c.1588). "A covered litter or conveyance, usually
for one person, used in India and other Eastern countries, consisting
of a large box with wooden shutters like Venetian blinds, carried
by four or six (rarely two) men by means of poles projecting before
and behind." Because this
conveyance was in common use throughout the East, the word palankeen/palanquin
should be considered as being on the periphery of the Anglo-Sri
Lankan lexicon. Nevertheless, as the term is prevalent in 19th century
English literature pertaining to Sri Lanka, it merits inclusion.
One of the earliest such references is by James Cordiner, who writes
in A Description of Ceylon (1807[1983]:152): "A detachment
of bearers and palanquins followed in his train, for the conveyance
of which boats could not be procured." Valentia (1809[1811]:224)
notes: "We arrived at the river before sun-set, where a boat
was ready to take over the palanquins." Graham (1811[1813]:97)
mentions the term in describing an encounter with a wanderoo: "I
at first took him to be a man, but I discovered my mistake, when
he peeped at my palankeen through the leaves, by the large grey
ruff he has round his face." My favourite reference is by J. W. Bennett, who writes in Ceylon and its Capabilities (1843:119) of an alarming incident in which a cobra invades his palanquin: "My palankin was brought into the room for the purpose of sleeping in it, but upon opening the door, in order to put in my pillows, I found I had been anticipated by a very fine high-caste Naya, which was coiled upon the mat, and showed no disposition to relinquish his berth."
The Welgam
Raja Maha Viharaya is at Kanyawa, about seven kilometres from Trincomalee
town. Although Kanyawa is more famous for its hot wells, the temple
too is historically important as it dates back nearly 2,000 years. According to
stone inscriptions (Sel lipi) which are still visible among the
ruins of the temple, the viharaya had been built during the time
of King Devanampiyatissa (3rd century BC), during whose reign Buddhism
was introduced to Sri Lanka. The great king himself is said to have
planted a Bo sapling in its premises. The inscriptions
also reveal that renovations had been done to the temple in later
years by kings such as Bathiya I and Parakramabahu I up until the
11th century AD. It was around that time that the area was abandoned
owing to attacks by invading armies and the temple was lost to the
jungle for several hundred years. It was rediscovered around the
latter part of the 18th century but underwent another period of
neglect due to the terrorist problems since the early 1980s until
last year. With the ceasefire
in operation since December 2001, the temple now attracts a large
number of visitors. Ampitiye Seelawansa
Thero, the chief incumbent of the temple, was one of the few who
lived through the troubled times trying to safeguard whatever he
could of this site. Today, he faces difficulties of a different
kind. "There are thousands of people coming here because of the ceasefire. But we have few facilities for pilgrims. There are no restrooms or proper toilets," the Thero said. The Thero himself
suffered injuries as a result of a terrorist attack in 2000 and
had to be hospitalized for several months. Ten soldiers on duty
in an army detachment guarding the temple were killed in the attack.
A mortar fired by the terrorists remains embedded in the Bo-tree
in the temple premises as a stark reminder of how a place of religious
worship was a battleground not so long ago. Most of the
70 or so families who lived in the area fled as a result of the
sporadic fighting. Today anyone driving down the gravel road leading
to the temple can see their abandoned homes. Ven. Seelawansa Thero
hopes that the villagers will now return and he will have some assistance
from them in maintaining the temple and its premises. He is regretful
that he has had little help from the government to preserve this
ancient religious site as is the case with many other such places
in the east. Much of the income now comes from private donors who visit the temple. A more concerted effort will be needed by the authorities to preserve this valuable site. He hopes that the temple can regain some of its lost grandeur and be preserved for future generations. |
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Copyright © 2001 Wijeya Newspapers
Ltd. All rights reserved. |
During the 19th century, journeys in the island were usually
undertaken in a handful of conveyances that were either drawn by
bullocks or borne by men. The second editions of the Oxford English
Dictionary (OED2) and Hobson-Jobson (H-J2) include the names of
several conveyances such as bandy, hackery, and palanquin that are
partly associated with Sri Lanka. Rickshaw (jinrikisha) is too universal,
while doolie (a rudimentary palanquin used as a stretcher) and tirikale
(the racing version of the hackery) are too rare to be considered
part of the Anglo-Sri Lankan lexicon. Date of first use is provided
in brackets.
The years of war and devastation in the north and east
have left many places of Buddhist religious worship neglected. Most
of these sites are also of immense archaeological and historical
value.
